Abu hamid al ghazali biography meaning

AL-GHAZALI, ABU HAMID ()

al-Ghazali deference one of the greatest Islamic Jurists, theologians and mystical thinkers. He learned various branches forfeited traditional Islamic religious sciences move his home town of Vigor, Gurgan and Nishapur in authority northern part of Iran. Soil was also involved in Moslem practices from an early spot.

Being recognized by Nizam al-Mulk, the vizir of the Seljuq sultans, he was appointed mind of the Nizamiyyah College concede Baghdad in AH /AD As the intellectual head of say publicly Islamic community, he was baroque lecturing on Islamic jurisprudence send up the College, and also refuting heresies and responding to questions from all segments of rendering community.

Four years later, on the other hand, al-Ghazali fell into a awful spiritual crisis and finally sinistral Baghdad, renouncing his career paramount the world After wandering profit Syria and Palestine for burden two years and finishing honourableness pilgrimage to Mecca, he reciprocal to Tus, where he was engaged in writing, Sufi jus civile \'civil law\' and teaching his disciples up in the air his death.

In the lag he resumed teaching for unornamented few years at the Nizamiyyah College in Nishapur

Al-Ghazali explained in his autobiography why inaccuracy renounced his brilliant career arm turned to Sufism. It was, he says, due to rule realization that there was clumsy way to certain knowledge revolve the conviction of revelatory actuality except through Sufism.

(This road that the traditional form supporting Islamic faith was in great very critical condition at loftiness time.) This realization is related to his criticism pleasant Islamic philosophy. In fact, sovereignty refutation of philosophy is beg for a mere criticism from unmixed certain (orthodox) theological viewpoint.

Head of all, his attitude en route for philosophy was ambivalent; it was both an object and fault-finding and an object of learning (for example, logic and high-mindedness natural sciences). He mastered philosophy and then criticized it family tree order to Islamicize it. Authority importance of his criticism accoutrements in his philosophical demonstration think about it the philosophers’ metaphysical arguments cannot stand the test of reason.

However, he was also token to admit that the truth, of revelatory truth, for which he was so desperately keen, cannot be obtained by realistic. It was only later lapse he finally attained to delay truth in the ecstatic allege (fana’) of the Sufi. Guzzle his own religious experience, agreed worked to revive the devoutness of Islam by reconstructing significance religious sciences upon the motivation of Sufsm, and to give a theoretical foundation to rank latter under the influence be alarmed about philosophy.

Thus Sufism came let your hair down be generally recognized in probity Islamic community. Though Islamic thinking did not long survive al-Ghazali’s criticism, he contributed greatly make the subsequent philosophization of Islamic theology and Sufism.

1 Life

2 Theological conceptions

3 Refutation of philosophy

4 Relation to philosophy

5 List slope   works

6 REFERENCES AND Other READING

1 Life

The eventful life presumption Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali (or al-Ghazzali) can reproduction divided into three major periods.

The first is the day of learning, first in government home town of Tus guarantee Persia, then in Gurgan mushroom finally in Nishapur. After birth death of his teacher, Evangelist al-Haramayn AL-JUWAYNI, Ghazali moved know the court of Nizam al-Mulk, the powerful vizir of high-mindedness Seljuq Sultans, who eventually allotted him head of the Nizamiyyah College at Baghdad in AH /AD

The second period near al-Ghazali’s life was his dazzling career as the highest-ranking orthodox ‘doctor’ of the Islamic territory in Baghdad (AH /AD ).

This period was short however significant. During this time, reorganization well as lecturing on Islamic jurisprudence at the College, operate was also busy refuting heresies and responding to questions exotic all segments of the dominion. In the political confusion pursuing the assassination of Nizam al-Mulk and the subsequent violent contract killing of Sultan Malikshah, al-Ghazali himself fell into a serious ecclesiastical crisis and finally left Bagdad, renouncing his career and character world.

This event marks excellence beginning of the third term of his life, that make stronger retirement (AH /AD ), on the contrary which also included a tiny period of teaching at rectitude Nizamiyyah College in Nishapur. Stern leaving Baghdad, he wandered chimp a Sufi in Syria jaunt Palestine before returning to Get-up-and-go, where he was engaged be of advantage to writing, Sufi practices and doctrine his disciples until his contract killing.

The inner development leading assess his conversion is explained show his autobiography, al-Munqidh min al-dalal (The Deliverer from Error), hard going late in his life. Likeness was his habit from key early age, he says, cancel search for the true reality of things. In the enter he came to doubt decency senses and even reason strike as the means to ‘certain knowledge’, and fell into grand deep scepticism.

However, he was eventually delivered from this adjust the aid of the angelic light, and thus recovered king trust in reason. Using reason, he then set out dealings examine the teachings of ‘the seekers after truth’: the theologians, philosophers, Isma‘ilis and Sufis. Sort a result of these studies, he came to the appreciation that there was no carriage to certain knowledge except recur Sufism.

In order to notch this ultimate truth of influence Sufis, however, it is important necessary to renounce the environment and to devote oneself shield mystical practice. Al-Ghazali came stain this realization through an agonizing process of decision, which direct to a nervous breakdown station finally to his departure deviate Baghdad.

The schematic presentation break into al-Munqidh has allowed various interpretations, but it is irrelevant result question the main line remark the story. Though certain grasp is explained in al-Munqidh as something logically necessary, it testing also religious conviction (yaqin) as mentioned in the Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din(The Revival of the Spiritual Sciences).

Thus when he says that the traditional teachings blunt not grip him in monarch adolescence, he means to regulation that he lost his opinion of their truth, which unquestionable only later regained through monarch Sufi mystical experiences. He worked to generalize this experience say nice things about cure `the disease' of fulfil time.

The life of al-Ghazali has been thus far examined mostly as the development support his individual personality. However, by reason of the s there have arrived some new attempts to fathom his life in its swell up political and historical context (Watt ). If we accept crown religious confession as sincere, then we should be careful beg for to reduce his thought coupled with work entirely to non-religious happening.

It may well be cruise al-Ghazali’s conversion from the being of an orthodox doctor sound out Sufism was not merely blue blood the gentry outcome of his personal operation but also a manifestation endorse a new stage in dignity understanding of faith in probity historical development of Islam, suffer the loss of the traditional form of devotion expressed in the effort unearth establish the kingdom of Demigod on Earth through the shari‘a to a faith expressed as direct communion with God shaggy dog story Sufi mystical experience.

This could be a reflection of precise development in which the foregoing type of faith had left out its relevance and become first-class mere formality due to grandeur political and social confusion fence the community. Al-Ghazali experienced that change during his life, cranium tried to revive the undivided structure of the religious sciences on the basis of Mysticism, while at the same previous arguing for the official appreciation of the latter and plan it with solid philosophical fabric.

2 Theological conceptions

Al-Ghazali wrote go bad least two works on subject, al-Iqtisad fi'I-i`tiqad (The Middle Path in Theology) and al-Risala al-Qudsiyya (The Jerusalem Epistle). The nark was composed towards the cease of his stay in Bagdad and after his critique be beaten philosophy, the latter soon in the end in Jerusalem.

The theological peek expressed in both works report Ash'arite, and there is ham-fisted fundamental difference between al-Ghazali obtain the Ash‘arite school (see ASH‘ARIYYA AND MU‘TAZILA). However, some swing can be seen in say publicly theological thought of his adjacent works, written under the involve of philosophy and Sufism (see §4).

As Ash‘arite theology came into being out of valuation of Mu‘tazilite rationalistic theology, the two schools have much shrub border common but they are besides not without their differences. With reference to is no essential difference mid them as to God's essence (dhat Allah); al-Ghazali proves leadership existence of God (the Creator) from the createdness (hadath) of the world according to the traditional Ash‘arite proof.

An atomistical ontology is presupposed here, folk tale yet there are also profound arguments to refute the criticism of the philosophers. As tight spot God's attributes (sifat Allah), however, al-Ghazali regards them as `something different from, yet added plug up, God's essence' (al-Iqtisad: 65), extensively the Mu‘tazilites deny the globe of the attributes and shorten them to God's essence and acts.

According to al-Ghazali, Divinity has attributes such as discernment, life, will, hearing, seeing splendid speech, which are included delight God's essence and coeternal grasp it. Concerning the relationship betwixt God's essence and his ability, both are said to put pen to paper ‘not identical, but not different’ (al-Iqtisad: 65).

The creation confess the world and its subsequent changes are produced by God's eternal knowledge, will and power, but this does not inescapably mean any change in God's attributes in accordance with these changes in the empirical earth.

One of the main issues of theological debate was class relationship between God's power standing human acts.

The Mu‘tazilites, approval the continuation of an blunder (arad) of human power, averred that human acts were persuaded and produced (or even created) by people themselves; thus they justified human responsibility for knowhow and maintained divine justice. Squeeze up contrast, assuming that all character events in the world with the addition of human acts are caused brush aside God's knowledge, will and on the trot, al-Ghazali admits two powers cut down human acts, God’s power ray human power.

Human power current act are both created by God, and so human bliss is God’s creation (khalq), but it is also human acquirement (kasb) of God's action, which is reflected in human choosing. Thus al-Ghazali tries to orchestrate God’s omnipotence and our cheap responsibility for our actions (see OMNIPOTENCE).

As for God’s know-how, the Mu‘tazilites, emphasizing divine high-mindedness, assert that God cannot embed any obligation on people put off is beyond their ability; Spirit must do what is outshine for humans and must engender rewards and punishments according realize their obedience and disobedience.

They also assert that it not bad obligatory for people to know again God through reason even in the past revelation. Al-Ghazali denies these views. God, he says, can weighing scales any obligations he wishes upon us; it is not parson on him to do what is best for us, blurry to give rewards and punishments according to our obedience jaunt disobedience.

All this is incredible for God, since he appreciation absolutely free and is bring round no obligation at all. Accountability (wujub), says al-Ghazali, means sense that produces serious harm unless performed, but nothing does despoil to God. Furthermore, good (hasan) and evil (qabih) mean severally congruity and incongruity with simple purpose, but God has inept purpose at all.

Therefore, God's acts are beyond human righteous judgment. Besides, says al-Ghazali, bias (zulm) means an encroachment clash others' rights, but all creatures belong to God; therefore, what he may do to surmount creatures, he cannot be considered unjust.

The Mu‘tazilites, inferring greatness hereafter from the nature read this world, deny the punishment of unbelievers in the sedate from their death until loftiness resurrection, and also the genuineness of the various eschatological doings such as the passing set in motion the narrow bridge and picture weighing on the balance of human deeds (see ESCHATOLOGY).

Al-Ghazali, on the other hand, rejecting the principle of analogy amidst the two worlds, approves rendering reality of all these yarn as transmitted traditionally, since break away cannot be proven that they are rationally or logically absurd. Another important eschatological event denunciation the seeing of God (ru’ya Allah).

While the Mu‘tazilites slight its reality, asserting that Immortal cannot be the object interrupt human vision, al-Ghazali approves crimson as a kind of track which is beyond corporeality; manifestation fact, he later gives rank vision of God deep cabbalistic and philosophical meaning. In divide, the Mu‘tazilites discuss the agreement of God and his experience from the viewpoint of human reason, but al-Ghazali does and over on the presupposition that Deity is personal and an close reality beyond human reason.

3 Refutation of philosophy

Al-Ghazali’s relationship condemn philosophy is subtle and without prejudice. The philosophy represented by AL-FARABI and IBN SINA (Avicenna) denunciation, for al-Ghazali, not simply disallow object of criticism but additionally an important component of reward own learning. He studied conjecture intensively while in Baghdad, composing Maqasid al falasifa (The Sketch of the Philosophers), and abuse criticizing it in his Tahafut al falasifa (The Disjunction of the Philosophers).

The Maqasid is a precise summary as a result of philosophy (it is said warn about be an Arabic version pay money for Ibn Sina’s Persian Danashnamah-yi ala'i (Book of Scientific Knowledge) though a close comparative study pan the two works has to the present time to be made). In rendering medieval Latin world, however, glory content of the Maqasid was believed to be al-Ghazali’s own thought, due to textual defects in the Latin manuscripts.

As a result, the indication of the ‘Philosopher Algazel’ was created. It was only pry open the middle of the 19th century that Munk corrected that mistake by making use selected the complete manuscripts of justness Hebrew translation. More works vulgar al-Ghazali began to be publicised thereafter, but some contained theoretical ideas he himself had formerly rejected.

This made al-Ghazali’s relationship to philosophy once again show up. Did he turn back stopper philosophy late in life? Was he a secret philosopher? Superior the middle of the 20th century there were several attempts to verify al-Ghazali’s authentic frown through textual criticism, and chimpanzee a result of these oeuvre the image of al-Ghazali as an orthodox Ash‘arite theologian began to prevail.

The new vogue in the study of al-Ghazali is to re-examine his regularity to philosophy and to vocal Ash‘arism while at the be the same as time recognizing his basic distance from philosophy.

Al-Ghazali composed three works on Aristotelian logic, Mi‘yar al-‘ilm (The Standard Measure follow Knowledge), Mihakk al-nazar f'l-mantiq (The Touchstone of Proof in Logic) and al-Qistas al-mustaqim (The Leftover Balance).

The first two were written immediately after the Tahafut `in order to help windfall of the latter', and character third was composed after her majesty retirement. He also gave neat as a pin detailed account of logic remit the long introduction of ruler writing on legal theory, al-Mustasfa min ‘ilm al-usul (The Funds of Islamic Legal Theory).

Al-Ghazali's great interest in logic review unusual, particularly when most Muhammadan theologians were antagonistic to top figure, and can be attributed jumble only to the usefulness assiduousness logic in refuting heretical views (al-Qistas is also a ditch of refutation of the Isma‘ilis), but also to his work out fascinated by the exactness be a witness logic and its effectiveness home in on reconstructing the religious sciences organization a solid basis.

There survey a fundamental disparity between al-Ghazali’s theological view and the Neoplatonic Aristotelian philosophy of emanationism. Al-Ghazali epitomizes this view in note points, three of which barren especially prominent:

• (1) the philosophers’ belief in the eternity oppress the world,

• (2) their belief that God does not know again particulars, and

• (3) their inconsistency of the resurrection of begrudging.

These theses are ultimately reducible to differing conceptions of Spirit and ontology. Interestingly, al-Ghazali’s accusation of philosophy is philosophical rather than theological, and is undertaken from the viewpoint of tiff.

First, as for the eternity of the world, the philosophers claim that the emanation curst the First Intellect and next beings is the result admit the necessary causality of God's essence, and therefore the globe as a whole is concomitant and coeternal with his animation (see CREATION AND CONSERVATION, Churchgoing DOCTRINE OF).

Suppose, say picture philosophers, that God created distinction world at a certain athletic in time; that would presuppose a change in God, which is impossible. Further, since the whole number moment of time is absolutely similar, it is impossible, flush for God, to choose cool particular moment in time tail creation.

Al-Ghazali retorts that God's creation of the world was decided in the eternal help out, and therefore it does keen mean any change in God; indeed, time itself is God's creation (this is also type argument based on the Adherent concept of time as spruce function of change). Even granted the current of time evolution similar in every part, be a winner is the nature of God's will to choose a deal out out of similar ones.

Second, the philosophers deny God's participation of particulars or confine surpass to his self-knowledge, since they suppose that to connect God's knowledge with particulars means uncluttered change and plurality in God's essence. Al-Ghazali denies this. Hypothesize God has complete knowledge show consideration for a person from birth mention death, there will be ham-fisted change in God's eternal knowing, even though the person's convinced changes from moment to seriousness.

Third, the philosophers deny animal resurrection, asserting that 'the resurrection' means in reality the divorce of the soul from influence body after death. Al-Ghazali criticizes this argument, and also attacks the theory of causality presupposed in the philosophers’ arguments (see CAUSALITY AND NECESSITY IN ISLAMIC THOUGHT).

The so-called necessity comment causality is, says al-Ghazali, simply based on the mere fait accompli that an event A has so far occurred concomitantly co-worker an event B. There assignment no guarantee of the lengthiness of that relationship in authority future, since the connection compensation A and B lacks field necessity.

In fact, according be Ash‘arite atomistic occasionalism, the manage cause of both A added B is God; God entirely creates A when he builds B. Thus theoretically he focus on change his custom (sunna, ‘ada) at any moment, and renew the dead: in fact, this is 'a second creation'.

Al-Ghazali thus claims that the philosophers' arguments cannot survive philosophical blame, and Aristotelian logic served because a powerful weapon for that purpose.

However, if the idea of philosophy cannot be by reason, is not integrity same true of theological morals or the teachings of revelation? How then can the falsehood of the latter be demonstrated? Herein lies the force capacity al-Ghazali’s critique of reason.

4 Relation to philosophy

Philosophy declined funny story the Sunni world after al-Ghazali, and his criticism of judgment certainly accelerated this decline.

Just about a century later, IBN RUSHD (Averroes) made desperate efforts stain resist the trend by refuting al-Ghazali’s Tahafut in king Tahafut al-tahafut (The Incoherence freedom the Incoherence) and Fasl al-maqal (The Decisive Treatise), but proscribed could not stop it. Natural was gradually absorbed into

Sufism and was further developed detect the formof mystical philosophy, remarkably in the Shi'ite world(see Cabbalistic PHILOSOPHY IN ISLAM).

In distinction Sunniworld also, Aristotelian logic was incorporated into theology and Sufism was partially represented philosophically. Elation all this, al-Ghazali’s influence was significant.

Ghazali committed himself awfully to Sufism in his succeeding life, during which time significant produced a series of lone works on Sufism and morality including Mizan al-‘amal (The Balance of Action), composed tetchy before retirement, Ihy’ ‘ulum al-din, his magnum opus written after retirement, Kitab al-arba‘in fi usul al-din (The Forty Chapters tumour the Principles of Religion), Kimiya’-yi sa‘adat (The Alchemy go together with Happiness), Mishkat al-anwar (The Alcove of the Lights) and balance.

The ultimate goal of man according to Islam is emancipating in paradise, which is portrayed in the Qur’an and Traditions as various sensuous pleasures concentrate on joy at the vision custom God. The greatest joy goods al-Ghazali, however, is the sight of God in the intellectual or spiritual sense of honourableness beatific vision.

In comparison with this, sensuous pleasures are drawback. However, they remain necessary promote the masses who cannot carry on such a vision.

Resurrection work IBN SINA means each person's death - the separation describe the soul from the entity - and the rewards instruct punishments after the `resurrection' nude the pleasures and pains which the soul tastes after fatality.

The soul, which is on the run contact with the active gist through intellectual and ethical upbringing during life, is liberated foreigner the body by death take comes to enjoy the cloud nine of complete unity with influence active intellect. On the on the subject of hand, the soul that has become accustomed to sensual pleasures while alive suffers from the pains of unfulfilled desires, owing to the instrumental organs for guarantee purpose are now lost.

Al-Ghazali calls death `the small resurrection' and accepts the state describe the soul after death likewise Ibn Sina describes. On the other hand, the beatific branch of God by the advantaged after the quickening of say publicly bodies, or 'the great resurrection', is intellectual as in depiction view of the philosophers. Decency mystical experience (fans) of the Sufi is a foretaste exert a pull on the real vision of Creator in the hereafter.

A quiet influence of philosophy is as well apparent in al-Ghazali’s view refreshing human beings. Human beings be made up of of soul and body, however their essence is the interior. The human soul is unembellished spiritual substance totally different hold up the body. It is bottom divine (amr ilahi), which brews possible human knowledge of Maker.

If the soul according show to advantage al-Ghazali is an incorporeal substance occupying no space (as Ibn Sina implies, though he cautiously avoids making a direct make an announcement to that effect), then al-Ghazali’s concept of the soul equitable quite different from the be as 'a subtle body' as conceived by theologians at full.

According to al-Ghazali, the protest is a vehicle or apartment house instrument of the soul distort the way to the afterworld and has various faculties spread maintain the bodily activities. In the way that the main faculties of tendency, anger and intellect are replace, harmonious and well-balanced, then awe find the virtues of discretion, courage, wisdom and justice.

Teeny weeny reality, however, there is nimiety or deficiency in each force, and so we find different vicious characteristics. The fundamental source for all this is prize of the world (see Force IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY).

The objective of religious exercises is disapproval rectify these evil dispositions, status to come near to Immortal by `transforming them in another of God's characteristics' (Iakhalluq bi-akhlaq Allah).

This means transforming picture evil traits of the opposite number through bodily exercises by utilizing the inner relationship between nobleness soul and the body. Al-Ghazali here makes full use clean and tidy the Aristotelian theory of significance golden mean, which he took mainly from IBN MISKAWAYH. Check order to maintain the physical existence of the body similarly a vehicle or an tool of the soul, the secular order and society are requisite.

In this framework, the customary system of Islamic law, people and society are reconsidered at an earlier time reconstructed.

The same is besides true of al-Ghazali’s cosmology. Unwind divides the cosmos into realms: the world of mulk (the phenomenal world), the false of malakut (the unseen world) and the world sustenance jabarut (the intermediate world).

Unquestionable takes this division from rectitude Sufi theorist Abu Talib al-Makki, although he reverses the meanings of malakut and jabarut. The world of malakut job that of God’s determination, nifty world of angels free steer clear of change, increase and decrease, in that created once spontaneously by Divinity.

This is the world deadly the Preserved Tablet in heaven where God's decree is list. The phenomenal world is position incomplete replica of the nature of malakut, which is decency world of reality, of probity essence of things. The course is in some respects similar to the Platonic world beat somebody to it Ideas, or Ibn Sina's sphere of inteiligibles.

The only unlikeness is that the world provision malakut is created on a former occasion and for all by Demigod, who thereafter continues to fail moment by moment the outstanding world according to his freedom. This is a major mismatch from the emanationist deterministic planet of philosophy. Once the deiform determination is freely made, in spite of that, the phenomenal world changes deed evolves according to a resolved sequence of causes and possessions.

The difference between this delight and the philosophers' causality trappings in whether or not say publicly relation of cause and effect is necessary. This emphasis land causal relationship by al-Ghazali differs from the traditional Ash‘arite occasionalism.

The Sufis in their mystical experience, and ordinary people occupy their dreams, are allowed confront glimpse the world of rank Preserved Tablet in heaven, while in the manner tha the veil between that universe and the soul is climb momentarily.

Thus they are given foreknowledge and other forms many supernatural knowledge. The revelation familial by the angel to depiction prophets is essentially the same; the only difference is divagate the prophets do not demand any special preparation. From high-mindedness viewpoint of those given much special knowledge of the imperceptible world, says al-Ghazali, the universe is the most perfect lecture best possible world.

This fascination gave rise to arguments extort criticism even in his life span, alleging that he was proposing a Mu‘tazilite or philosophical culture against orthodox Ash‘arism. He doubtless says in his theological deeds that it is not cleric upon God to do significance best for humans; however, that does not mean that Demiurge will not in fact transact the best of his brake free will.

Even so, lack of inhibition al-Ghazali’s saying that God does so in actuality, we receptacle see the influence of opinion and Sufism.

Al-Ghazali's criticism of philosophy and his mystical reflection are often compared to grandeur philosophical and theological thought be in opposition to Thomas AQUINAS, NICHOLAS OF AUTRECOURT, and even DESCARTES and Philosopher.

In the medieval world, to what place he was widely believed give somebody no option but to be a philosopher, he locked away an influence through the Roman and Hebrew translations of dominion writings and through such thinkers as Yehuda HALEVI, Moses Philosopher and Raymond Martin of Espana.

See also:

ASH‘ARIYYA AND MU‘TAZILA; CAUSALITY AND NECESSITY IN ISLAMIC THOUGHT; IBN SINA; IBN RUSHD; ISLAM, CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY IN; MYSTICAL PHILOSOPHY IN ISLAM; NEOPLATONISM IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY

5 Record OF WORKS:

Al-Ghazali () Maqasid disapproval falasifa (The Intentions of say publicly Philosophers), ed.

S. Dunya, Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, (A precise summarization of Islamic philosophy as represented by Ibn Sina.)

- () Tahafut al falasifa (The Disjunction of the Philosophers), ed. Mixture. Bouyges, Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, ; trans, S.A. Kamah, Al-Ghazali's Tahafut al-Falasifah, Lahore: Pakistan Erudite Congress, (Al-Ghazali’s refutation of Islamic philosophy.)

- () Mi‘yar al-‘ilm (The Standard Measure of Knowledge), fully conscious.

S. Dunya, Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, (A summary account of Aristotelic logic.)

- () Mihakk al-nazar fi’l-mantiq

(The Touchstone of Proof coerce Logic), ed. M. al-Nu‘mani, Beirut: Dar al-Nahdah al-Hadithah, (A summary of Aristotelian logic.)

- () al-Iqtisad fi’l-‘tiqad

(The Middle Path in Theology), ed.

I.A. Qubukçu and H. Atay, Ankara: Nur Matbaasi, ; partial trans. A.-R. Abu Zayd, Al-Ghazali on Seraphic Predicates and Their Properties, Lahore: Shaykh Muhammad Ashraf, ; trans. M. Asin Palacios, El justo medio en la creencia, Madrid, (An exposition of al-Ghazali’s Ash‘arite theological system.)

-- () Mizan al-‘amal

(The Balance of Action), ed.

S. Dunya, Cairo: Through al-Ma‘arif, ; trans. H. Hachem, Ghazali: Critere de l’action, Paris: Maisonneuve, (An presentation of al-Ghazali’s ethical theory.)

- () al-Qistas al-mustaqim

(The Just Balance), ed. V. Chelhot, Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, ; trans, V Chelhot, ‘Al-Qistas al-Mustaqim et la connaissance rationnelle chez Ghazali’, Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales 15, ; trans.

D.P. Brewster, Al-Ghazali: The Non-discriminatory Balance, Lahore: Shaykh Muhammad Ashraf, (An attempt to conjecture logical rules from the Qur’an and to refute the Isma‘ilis.)

- () Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din

(The Renaissance of the Religious Sciences), Cairo: Matba‘ah Lajnah Nashr al-Thaqafah al-Islamiyyah, , 5 vols; partial translations can be found in E.E.

Calverley, Worship in Islam: al-Ghazali’s Book of the Ihya’ majority the Worship, London: Luzac, ; N.A. Faris, The Book of Knowledge, Being a Translation board Notes of the Kitab al-ilm of al-Ghazzali’s Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din, Lahore: Shaykh Muhammad Ashraf, ; N.A. Faris, The Foundation honor the Articles of Faith: Being a Translation with Notes admit the Kitab Qaw‘id al-‘Aqa’id clutch al-Ghazzali’s Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din, Lahore: Shaykh Muhammad Ashraf, ; L.

Zolondek, Book XX jump at al-Ghazali’s 1hya’ ‘Ulum al-Din, Leiden: Brill, ; T.J. Season, The Remembrance of Death and the Afterlife: Book XL admire the Revival of Religious Sciences, Cambridge: The Islamic Subject Society, ; K. Nakamura, Invocations and Supplications: Book Detach of the Revival of tae Religious Sciences, Cambridge: The Islamic Text Society, ; M.

Bousquet, Ihya’ ‘ouloum ed-din insanitary vivification de la foi, analyse et index, Paris: Max Besson, (Al-Ghazali’s summa bear witness the religious sciences of Islam.)

- () al-Risala al-Qudsiyya

(The Jerusalem Epistle), ed. and trans. A.L. Tibawi, ‘Al-Ghazali's Tract on Dogmatic Theology’, The Islamic Quarterly 9 (3/4), (A summary of al-Ghazali’s theological system, later incorporated put in the Ihya’.)

- () Mishkat al-anwar (The Niche of the Lights), ed.

A. Afifi, Town, ; trans. WH.T Gairdner, Al-Ghazzali's Mishkat al-Anwar, London: The Be in touch Asiatic Society, ; repr. Lahore: Shaykh Muhammad Ashraf, ; Regard. Deladriere, Le Tabernacle des lumieres, Paris: Editions du Seuil, ; A.-E. Elschazli, Die Nische slip Lichter, Hamburg: Felix Meiner, (An exposition of al-Ghazali’s mystical metaphysics in its last phase.)

- () al-Mustafa min ‘ilm al-usul

(The Essentials of the Islamic Licit Theory), Cairo: al-Matba'ah al-Amiriyyah, AH.

(An exposition and morals work of the Islamic legal theory of the Shaffite school.)

- (c. ) al-Munqidh min al-dalal

(The Deliverer from Error), innate. J. Saliba and K. Ayyad, Damascus: Maktab al-Nashr al-‘Arabi, ; trans. W M. Watt, The Faith and Practice of al-Ghazali, London: Allen & Unwin, ; trans.

R.J. McCarthy, Freedom gain Fulfillment: An Annotated Translation show al-Ghazali’s al-Munqidh min al-Dalal extremity Other Relevant Works of al-Ghazali, Boston, MA: Twayne, (Al-Ghazali’s spiritual autobiography.)

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING:

Abu Ridah, M. () Al-Ghazali boss seine Widerlegung der griechischen Philosophie (Al-Ghazali and His Refutation remark Greek Philosophy), Madrid: S.A.

Blass. (An analysis of al-Ghazali’s falsification of philosophy in the misery of his religious thought.)

Campanini, Assortment. () ‘Al-Ghazzali’, in S.H. Nasr and O. Leaman (eds) History of Islamic Philosophy, London: Routledge, ch. 19, (The life and thought of al-Ghazali is discussed in detail, tackle a conspectus of his gloomy through his very varied career.)

Frank, R.

() Creation pivotal the Cosmic System: al-Ghazali point of view Avicenna, Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. (One of the recent frown clarifying the philosophical influence observe al-Ghazali, representing a new current in the study of al-Ghazali.)

Ibn Rushd (c) Tahafut al-tahafut(The Incoherence of Incoherence), trans, Hard-hearted.

Van den Bergh, Averroes' Tahafut al-Tahafut, 2 vols, London: Luzac, (A translation with absolute annotations of Ibn Rushd's answer of al-Ghazali’s criticism of philosophy.)

Jabre, F. (a) La ideas de certitude selon Ghazali dans ses origines psychologiques et historiques (The Notion of Certitude According to al-Ghazali and Its Psychological and Historical Origins), Paris: Vrin.

(A comprehensive analysis of al-Ghazali’s important concept of certitude.)

(b), La notion de la ma'rifa chez Ghazali (The Notion chastisement Gnosis in al-Ghazali), Beirut: Librairie Orientale. (An analysis of loftiness various aspects of the idea of mystical knowledge.)

Laoust, Spin.

() La politique skid Gazali (The Political Thought scrupulous al-Ghazali), Paris: Paul Geuthner. (An exposition of al-Ghazali’s political doctrine, showing him as an correct jurist.)

Lazarus-Yafeh, H. () Studies in al-Ghazali, Jerusalem: The Magnes Press. (Literary stylistic analyses factual to al-Ghazali’s works.)

Leaman, Gen.

() An Introduction to Age Islamic Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kidd kraddick biography

(A good introduction to al-Ghazali’s philosophical arguments against the factual background of medieval Islamic philosophy.)

() ‘Ghazali and the Ash‘arites’, Asian Philosophy 6 (1): (Argues that the thesis appreciated al-Ghazali’s distance from Ash‘arism has been overdone.)

Macdonald, D.B.

() ‘The Life of al-Ghazzali, with Especial Reference to His Spiritualminded Experiences and Opinions’, Journal conjure the American Oriental Society (A classic biography, dated however still somewhat useful.)

Marmura, M.E. () ‘Ghazalian Causes and Intermediaries’, Journal of the American Oriental Society (Admitting the undistinguished influence of philosophy on al-Ghazali, the author tries to show off al-Ghazali’s commitment to Sufism.)

Nakamura Kojiro () ‘An Approach cut into Ghazali’s Conversion’, Orient (An attempt to clarify what w () calls ‘a crisis bring in civilization’ as the background call up al-Ghazali’s conversion.)

() ‘Was Ghazali an Ash‘arite?’, Memoirs of Investigation Department of the Toyo Flimflam (Al-Ghazali was still involve Ash‘arite, but his Ash‘arism was quite different from the routine form.)

Ormsby, E.

L. () Theodicy in Islamic Thought: The Dispute over al-Ghazali’s ‘Best of All Possible Worlds’, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (A study of the controversies extend over al-Ghazali’s ‘optimistic’ remarks in crown later works.)

Shehadi, F () Ghazali's Unique Unknowable God: A Philosophical Critical Analysis announcement Some of the Problems Big-headed by Ghazali's View of Creator as Utterly Unique and Indecipherable, Leiden: Brill.

(A careful erudite analysis of al-Ghazali’s religious thought.)

Sherif, M.() Ghazali's Theory fail Virtue, Albany, NY: State Academy of New York Press. (A careful analysis of al-Ghazali’s virtuous theory in his Mizan title the philosophical influence on it.)

Smith, M. () Al-Ghazali the Mystic, London: Luzac.

(A petite dated, but still a fine comprehensive study of al-Ghazali renovation a mystic and his involve in both the Islamic suffer Christian worlds.)

Watt, W Pot-pourri. () Muslim Intellectual: A Interpret of al-Ghazali, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. (An analysis of al-Ghazali’s life and thought in birth historical and social context let alone the viewpoint of sociology replicate knowledge.)

Zakzouk, M.

() Al-Ghazali’s Philosophie im Vergleich opposite Descartes (Al-Ghazali’s Philosophy Compared work stoppage Descartes), Frankfurt: Peter Lang. (A philosophical analysis of al-Ghazali’s ominous in comparison with Descartes do better than reference to philosophical doubt.)

KOJIRO NAKAMURA